Cool Herc is widely agreed to be the originator of hip hop(Babin 2020). This tells me you got the information from the cours

Float like a butterfly, sting like a bee, yo! I’m the e of epmd.

—Erick Sermon of epmd, ‘‘You’re a Customer’’

You see I floats just like some helium and stings

just like Tabasco, been nice wit my skills ever since I had an Afro!

—Crazy Drayz of Das efx, ‘‘They Want Efx’’

I don’t fight clean, float like a butterfly,

stings like a scorpion ridin’ on the tip of a sick ding a ling.

—Heltah Skeltah, ‘‘The Grate Unknown’’

3 Stinging Like Tabasco

Structure and Format in Hip Hop Compositions

This chapter begins with lyrical references to Muhammad Ali. Count-

less such references to Ali exist in hip hop. He was one of the fore-

runners of hip hop, with his introduction of black oral rhyming cul-

ture into the mainstream. Hip hop uses Ali’s style—whether referring

to his Cassius Clay bragging or his Nation of Islam–inspired conver-

sion into an outspoken black nationalist athlete—as a metaphor for skill

and grace. Ali was one of a handful of the first black celebrity figures to

bring black language styles and traditions into the public eye with dig-

nity, self-possession, and power. He provided part of the foundation for

the explosion of hip hop, an artistic variation of traditional black cultural

forms, into the American popular cultural framework.

Boxing may serve as a good metaphor for hip hop anyway. Not only

because both foster a diverse group of bragging personalities with ag-

gressive styles but also because they are strategic competitions. Hip

hop is poetry that shifts styles of defense and offense, moving between

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grace and bull-like forward barreling. It dances, it leans back, and then

it attacks. It uses the broadest allegory to discuss the individual mo-

ment of confrontation. In the so-called ‘‘Rumble in the Jungle,’’ the 1974

Muhammad Ali–George Foreman fight, Ali threatened to match Fore-

man’s crushing power with dance. When the actual impact of Foreman’s

power became apparent, Ali responded with strategy, first surprising

Foreman with an insulting right hook, then faking him out for three

rounds, using up Foreman’s energy, and coming back in the final rounds

with new vigor. Analogously, in 8 Mile, the film loosely based on the early days of Eminem, the climax of the movie occurs when the young

rapper prevails in a battle by asserting all of his weaknesses, anticipating

his opponents dissing, and thereby subverting power.

Todd Boyd speaks of the relationship between music and sport in Afri-

can American culture, saying,

I remember hearing Miles Davis talk about how he structured a trum-

pet solo after watching a Sugar Ray Robinson boxing match. Sugar Ray

was known as a master of style. You know, he would walk into the ring

wearing two robes, and he’d take off the outer robe and underneath

would be this white silk robe. It was all about presentation and perfor-

mance. But Miles focused specifically on how Sugar Ray, in the first

round of a fight, would set traps for his opponent without springing

them. And then he’d come back in the second round and spring one of

those traps, and the fight, of course, would be over. And Miles took that

idea and applied it to his solo, so at the beginning of the solo there are all

these traps set, and in the second half of the solo, he’s springing the trap.

So you can flow between those two disparate forms and find that sort

of inspiration. Art really does lay bare the questions, and the questions

can become much more interesting than the answers sometimes.1

Likewise, in hip hop tactical shifts occur within the style of metaphor,

which is highly variable even within one song, as well as in the distinc-

tive style an artist might have as an individual, or if he or she is part

of a group, within the group. Hip hop music is a war of position, and

the position one takes manifests itself in the performance or language.

One of the most commonly used metaphors in this war is that of mur-

der, one frequently employed in boxing as well. In the film depicting the

1974 Ali-Foreman fight, When We Were Kings (dir. Leon Gast, 1996), the people of Zaire, in support of Ali, chant, ‘‘Ali bimboye,’’ meaning ‘‘Ali,

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kill him!’’ Boxers themselves speak metaphorically of murdering oppo-

nents. In the lyrics, ‘‘Like Ali-Frazier / thriller in Manila / pinpoint, point

black microphone killer am I,’’ Chuck D of Public Enemy is the mur-

derer on the microphone, verbally killing competing mcs.2 The use of

murder in hip hop varies. Narratives of gratuitous violence do exist, and

they are heavily critiqued by media pundits, yet there are also rhymes

in which violence stands in as a symbolic explication of skill, courage,

or power, as in the following example: ‘‘Picture blood baths in elevator

shafts / Like these murderous lyrics tight from genuine craft / Check the

print / swear a veteran sparked the letter and / Slow movin’ mcs waitin’

for the edition.’’ 3

At times, the mc will directly refer to the symbolism, telling the audi-

ence what he or she plans to do lyrically to other mcs; at other times, the

reference to skill or power comes obliquely, as in moments of role-play

as Asian martial arts experts or mafiosi. The reference to the crafted or

powerful violence of another, such as a mafioso, a Bruce Lee, or a boxer,

often comes combined with descriptions of the artist’s skill. Heltah

Skeltah rhyme:

I control the masses with metaphors that’s massive

Don’t ask of the nigga’ll bash shit like Cassius

I’m drastic when it comes to verbs I’ll be flippin’

Cause herbs just be shittin’ off the words I be kickin’

I scold you knuckleheads swore for the petty

But I told you rich niggas that heads ain’t ready

Now I mold you back into the bitch that you are

Fuckin’ with the Ruckus get bruised worse than scars.4

Here, the murder metaphor stands alongside proclamations of competi-

tive orality and superiority. It is in fact an ego assassination that takes

place through the skillful dis. As in much of hip hop, here we find varia-

tions on the game of playing the dozens (an African American folk prac-

tice of competitive insult) and its competitive discourse.

Signifying, another element of black language that appears in hip hop,

is distinguished in African American culture from the dozens largely

for its suggestive and subtextual critique, an expression of cleverness

rather than overtness. The folk expression of signifying finds articula-

tion in the stories of the Signifying Monkey, who tells the Lion that the

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Elephant has been insulting him. The furious Lion demands an apology

from the Elephant, who refuses and roundly stomps him. Only then

does the Lion realize his mistake of taking the Monkey’s word. So, for

example, mc Lyte and Antoinette battled in the late 1990s. mc Lyte, in

her song, ‘‘10% Dis,’’ rhymed, ‘‘Beat biter / dope style taker / tell you to

your face you ain’t nothing but a faker,’’ a dozens-style confrontation,

while Antoinette responded, ‘‘Lights out, now the party’s over / Home-

girl reminds me of my dead dog rover,’’5 using the world light as a double entendre, signaling the impending demise of her competitor, and call-

ing her ugly without saying it directly. While the monkey’s indirect as-

sault in the folktale comes through false gossip, Antoinette employs the

homophone for hers.

Relying on Henry Louis Gates’s call for a vernacular-based literary

criticism in The Signifyin(g) Monkey, Sam Floyd describes the meaning of Signifyin(g) when applied to the black music tradition: ‘‘Signifyin(g) is

a way of saying one thing and meaning another; it is a reinterpretation,

a metaphor for the revision of previous texts and figures; it is tropologi-

cal thought, repetition with difference, the obscuring of meaning—all

to achieve or reverse power, to improve situations, and to achieve pleas-

ing results for the signifier.’’6 As Nelson George says, ‘‘Recontextualiz-

ing someone else’s sounds was, after all, how hip hop started.’’7 It is a

Signifyin(g) form in its origins.

Signifiyin(g) also manifests itself in the previously mentioned mul-

tiple registers of hip hop. Access to these registers constitutes a test

in familiarity with the artist and, for example, his or her sociopolitical

or philosophical location. Sometimes the various registers conflict, so

that the first level of text may actually affirm stereotypes of black men,

for example, or appear to be misogynistic. Yet a deeper register of the

text may then challenge the assumptions, describe feeling locked into

the stereotype, reinterprets it to the advantage of the artist, or make

fun of the holder of the stereotype.8 When registers conflict with each

other, listeners find themselves in a quandary regarding the music’s in-

terpretation. Should it be interpreted according to the deeper registers

or the most superficial, more accessible ones? Floyd writes, ‘‘Through

the energizing and renewing magic of myth and ritual, there emerged

from the volatile cauldron of Call-Response a music charged with mean-

ings centuries old—meanings to which the initiated, the knowledge-

able, and the culturally sensitive responded in heightened communi-

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cation.’’9 Nelson George has described his surprise at the support for

2 Live Crew, the notoriously misogynistic and exploitative Miami Bass

rap group, expressed by black women students during a lecture at Spel-

man College in Atlanta.10 What the episode reveals, however, is that the

female listeners clearly understood a regional cultural register that told

them, ‘‘you can escape this misogynistic construction by not behaving

in a certain manner’’ thereby possibly not identifying the misogyny with

themselves, even if they perhaps should have been appalled by it.

Beyond the arena of music, the Signifyin(g) call-response trope ex-

tends to clothing styles, colloquial speech, spoken word, and the like, all

in conversation with rap and rappers. George describes this in video cul-

ture: ‘‘An exciting interplay—a kind of videographic loop—developed

between the consumers and performers. Performers would latch on to

a new clothing style in the street. That style would be showcased in a

video and the audience would then be turned on to the style, be it Run’s

hat or Snoop Doggy Dogg’s braids. Within a few weeks, an outfit worn in

Queens or Compton would suddenly become a national and sometimes

international trend. Or the dialogue would go the other way.’’11 The call

issued from the video to a national audience response is consistently

reinterpreted, modified, made local, and then made national again.

The Signifyin(g) that Gates articulated in landmark fashion in his

work on the African American literary tradition is abundant in hip hop.

Both the cultural tradition of Signifyin(g) that hip hop in many ways

descends from, as well as the literary theoretical articulation of signifi-

cation that Gates conceptualizes form part of the music. Gates quotes

linguist Geneva Smitherman’s eight features of signification:

1. Indirection, circumlocution

2. Metaphorical-imagistic

3. Humorous, ironic

4. Rhythmic fluence and sound

5. Teachy but not preachy

6. Directed at person or persons usually present in the situational

context

7. Punning, play on words

8. Introduction of the semantically or logically unexpected 12

These elements are present within the universe of the hip hop narra-

tive, but also in the construction of the music, through deejaying, and

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as part of a musical canon. While the textuality is distinct in hip hop as

it is brief, oral, and aural rather than written, and has the appearance

of being entirely vernacular (a false appearance, but significant none-

theless), it does rely on some of the same tools Gates articulates. The

Signifyin(g) on other texts in hip hop occurs both within the world of

rap, and across black music, and even across music in general. When

Dr. Dre lays lyrics of gangster destruction over mellow soul, his compo-

sition signifies on that earlier music’s interpretation of black experience

and yet uses it as a vernacular for creating the contemporary meaning

he articulates. When Biggie Smalls first came out, he was an East Coast

signification on West Coast forms of storytelling, language, and celebra-

tions of wealth and death. Gates describes Signifyin(g) as it appears in

oral tradition:

Motivated Signifyin(g) is the sort in which the Monkey delights; it func-

tions to redress an imbalance of power, to clear a space, rhetorically.

To achieve occupancy in the desired space, the Monkey rewrites the re-

ceived order by exploiting the Lion’s hubris and his inability to read the

figurative other other than as the literal. Writers Signify on each other’s

texts by rewriting the received textual tradition. This sort of Signifyin(g)

revision serves, if successful, to create a space for the revising text. It

also alters fundamentally the way we read the tradition, by defining the

relation of the text at hand to the tradition.13

Biggie’s genius as an mc was to take heed of the manner in which West

Coast rap had eclipsed the East and to adopt and reinterpret the symbols

of West Coast hip hop through an East Coast style. In 2003, the Queens-

bred 50 Cent, whose album was released at number one, made a similar

move integrating Southern and Western hip hop sensibilities into his

style. In rap, the figure of the lion as having brute power, as opposed

to the intellectual nuance and trickery of the monkey, might be read as

white supremacy, but other readings are possible too: it might be read

as the power of the trained musician, the power of the civil rights–era

establishment for determining black public discourse and concerns, the

perceived greater social and economic power of black women as com-

pared to black men, all of which might be troped in text. The Signifyin(g)

in rap in sophistication far exceeds a simple reference or response—it

is engagement with other texts and their traditions in the midst of one’s

own piece, using the former as part of the ultimate creation of the latter.

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In fact, the use of the monkey in the folktale itself reminds us that rap

is but a child of earlier forms.

Of the many colorful figures that appear in black vernacular tales, per-

haps only Tar Baby is as enigmatic and compelling as is the oxymoron,

the Signifying Monkey. The ironic reversal of a received racist image

of the black as simian-like, the Signifying Monkey, he who dwells at

the margins of discourse, ever punning, ever troping, ever embodying

the ambiguities of language, is our trope for repetition and revision,

indeed our trope of chiasmus, repeating and reversing simultaneously

as he does in one deft discursive act.14

Exploiting the stereotype while simultaneously expressing literary skill

is one of the prominent ways of using the black literary tradition.

The complex use of the structures of language and storytelling are

critical features that help to describe what hip hop does, and to begin

to develop a critical eye toward its evaluation. The basic elements of

figurative language abound in the form, particularly metaphor. In hip

hop, metaphor allows transcendence. Its frequent use lies at the heart

of artistry in hip hop. It plays on the African American male tradition

of finding freedom in mobility.15 Metaphor in hip hop is about motion

and transformation; its usage allows the artists to move outside of the

boundaries of their communities, and even transcend the limitations of

human fallibility.

Milk: Do you understand the metaphoric phrase ‘‘lyte as a rock’’? It’s

explaining how heavy the young lady is, you know what I’m saying,

king?

Gizmo: Yes, my brother, but I would consider ‘‘lyte as a rock’’ a simile

because of the usage of the word ‘‘as.’’ And now, directly from the planet

of Brooklyn, mc Lyte as a rock!16

This exchange, spoken by mc Lyte’s hip hop artist brothers the ‘‘Audio

Two,’’ a.k.a. Milk and Gizmo, introduces her song ‘‘Lyte as a Rock.’’

It explains the simile in the title with the word heavy (as a rock), meaning having profound insight and wisdom. This song features a

self-conscious use of figurative language, with metaphor and simile

functioning as the most important nonliteral elements in the lyrics, a

phenomenon found throughout hip hop lyrics.

‘‘I’m like . . .’’ is probably one of the five most popular phrases to begin

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hip hop stanzas. Metaphor and simile function in three notable ways in

hip hop. First, they fulfill the obvious task of explication. The mc tells

the listener about him- or herself, or whatever other subject is up for dis-

cussion, through comparison with or use of the characteristics of other

objects, creatures, or entities. Second, they serve as great tools for ex-

hortation and proclamation because through the metaphoric naming

of great things, the mc proclaims his or her own greatness: ‘‘Lyte as a

rock / or I should say a boulder rollin’ down your neck / poundin’ on

your shoulders.’’17 But perhaps most important, metaphor and simile

engage the imagination and expand or transform the universe in which

the mc dwells. With them, the author creates a space of possibility.

Emcees often create dramatic contrast within the sphere of the rhyme

between life as it exists and life as it might be, and they often juxta-

pose those two realities. The conclusion of Special Ed’s ‘‘I Got It Made’’

is reminiscent of Nikki Giovanni’s famous 1970s poem ‘‘Ego Trippin’,’’

as he tells his readers through example about his greatness, or rather

how he ‘‘has it made.’’18 Interspersed with tales of part ownership of

Tahiti and his personal waiter bringing him potato alligator soufflé, are

‘‘My hair was growing too long so I got me a fade / and when my dishes

got dirty, I got Cascade / when the weather was hot, I got a spot in the

shade.’’19 These are distinctly possible and mundane aspects of Special

Ed’s daily life. The music video to accompany the song was partly shot in

front of Erasmus Hall High School in Flatbush, Brooklyn, and in aban-

doned lots. In the video, the juxtaposition of expansive imaginative pos-

sibilities and the daily existence of the teenager in New York proves even

more dramatic. During the line ‘‘I got a frog, a dog with a solid gold

bone,’’ Special Ed smiles and holds up a dirty old bone.

It is important to note, however, that metaphor does not always ex-

press great hope or great ability. It can also serve as the expression of

despair, stagnation, or destruction. Natural Bee rhymed, ‘‘Vermin I ter-

minate verbally / I offend more niggas than the Mark Furman tapes,’’20

manifesting a clever destructive power. The appropriation of the names

of the infamous or of weaponry for stage names is a sign of power,

but also a glamorization of destruction. Capone, Noreaga (after General

Manuel Noriega), Smif-N-Wessun (after the gun manufacturers), and,

perhaps most disturbingly, Concentration Camp are names that oper-

ate as metaphors of violent destructive capability. So in the midst of the

great beauty of expression and emotion that operates through metaphor

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in hip hop, there exists an ugliness (with cultural antecedents in toasts)

that must be acknowledged as well. The tradition of harnassing ugliness

to claim power is found in the cultural antecedents of hip hop.

As John Szwed explains, ‘‘The most likely candidate for a direct fore-

bearer of modern rap is the toast, the rhymed monologue, an African-

American poetic form that typically recounts the adventures of a group

of heroes who often position themselves against society either as so

shrewd and powerful as to be superhuman, or so bad and nasty as

to be sub-human.’’21 Figurative language is not only used for the self-

aggrandizement so popular in hip hop music but also for the sake of

making interesting artistic statements. Craig Mack rhymes:

Craig Mack

1000 degrees

You’ll be on your knees

You’ll be beggin’ burning please

Brother freeze man

Undisputed deep-rooted

funk smoke that leaves your brains booted.22

Hip hop is high-sensibility music. Even before music videos became

popular, the use of visual images was common in the poetry of hip hop.

This holistic culture, and participatory performance culture, engages

multiple senses anyway, but in addition, the lyrics themselves speak of

sensory diversity in describing the effects of the music. Senses are trans-

ferred and interchanged. For example, where touch would be, sound has

entered, reinforcing the sense of inundation in the musical experience.

Heavy D. rhymes: ‘‘With moves that sensual / three-dimensional / un-

questionable lover’s a professional.’’ 23 The multisensory figurative lan-

guage makes reference to the fact that the music is simply the most

prominent expression of a broader cultural form. In addition to the audi-

tory, the visual and the kinetic, the variety of senses and expressions

of senses, are experienced as part of hip hop culture. Renowned dj Kid

Capri has said, ‘‘I made my tapes sound like a party. No matter what it

was. My tapes just made you feel like you were there while the tape was

being made.’’24

The aesthetics of the music have demanded that the multisensory

experience of live music be incorporated into the recorded composi-

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tions, both poetically and in the creation of the sounds of partying. Paul

Gilroy, observing such gestures, writes, ‘‘The hip hop nation has con-

fined its loudly trumpeted enthusiasm for improvisation within strict

limits. Most of the time its favored mode of reality is a virtual one in

which only the illusion of spontaneity is created and the balance be-

tween rehearsed and improvised elements of the creative event shifts

decisively toward the former.’’25 Gilroy does not necessarily locate this as

a criticism, but rather sees that the process impacts the performance of

rap as compared to other black music forms. Certainly, one rarely finds

improvisation in performances of popular artists or onstage, where the

aesthetic of live performance is marketed rather than the reality. But one

does find it at the local venue or party, contexts which continue to pro-

vide inspiration for recorded imitations of multisensory improvisation.

Composition

The more common use of the word composition is useful as it explains the way in which hip hop meets the African/African American ‘‘hetero-

geneous sound ideal.’’ In The Power of Black Music, Sam Floyd cites Olly Wilson in describing this musical ideal ‘‘that results from the timbral

mosaic created by the interaction between the lead voice, chorus, rattle,

metal gong, hand clapping, various wind or strong instruments, and

drums which exists in greater or lesser degrees in almost all African

ensemble music.’’26 By and large, however, hip hop is not the music of

singers or instrument players. One of the effects of desegregation in

some communities and school cutbacks in others was the loss of a ritual-

ized formal space for instrument learning and practice for many African

American children, and this is part of the reason hip hop is not primarily

musician’s music.

Yet I do not wish to posit rap as a music of deprived resources, sug-

gesting that if only young African Americans had learned to play in-

struments, they could have made more ‘‘valuable’’ music. One of the

genius elements of the creation of hip hop is that it has allowed a re-

conception of a number of ways to fit the musical ideal, and I say re- conceive because, as Chuck D told me when I approached him to tell him about this book, ‘‘Ain’t nothin new under the sun,’’ even without

traditional musical tools. Floyd writes about the ideal that ‘‘the combina-

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tion of these sounds creates a contrasting, not a blending conglomerate,

resulting in a sound that is ideally suited to the rhythmic, polyphonic

and tonal stratifications of African and African American music.’’27 In

order to do this in hip hop, instead of putting together different kinds

of instruments or styles of singers to create a conglomerate, different

sorts of repeated sounds and voices—some singing, some talking—are

placed together, arranged, manipulated, and transformed with a heavy

dependence on technology. Houston Baker described hip hop deejaying

as postmodern, saying, ‘‘The high technology of advanced sound pro-

duction was reclaimed by and for human ears and the human body’s

innovat

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